A Review of King-sears ( 2008) Journal Article of Facts and Fallacies of Inclusion

Abstract

Previous studies examining attitudes towards functioning heterogeneity accept focused on attitudes among teachers. Nevertheless, positive attitudes towards the schoolhouse environment are also causeless to be conducive for students. The aim of this newspaper is to examine students' attitudes towards performance heterogeneity with a sample of 784 5^th-grade students. Based on the 3-component theory of attitudes (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993), we investigated whether students' attitudes towards operation heterogeneity are positive or negative. Furthermore, we analyzed contextual relations, focusing on whether students' attitudes are linked to performance heterogeneity in the classroom and to a teachers' behavior to manage performance heterogeneity. Descriptive statistics show that students' attitudes towards performance heterogeneity are rather positive. Multi-level structural equation models reveal that contextual rather than individual characteristics relate to students' attitudes towards functioning heterogeneity. Appropriately, students in heterogeneous classes show a more positive attitude towards performance heterogeneity than students in less heterogeneous classes. In improver, a teachers' capability of professionally managing heterogeneity is positively associated with students' attitudes towards performance heterogeneity. Accordingly, students' prove more positive attitudes if teachers implement rules, effectively manage disruptions, orient themselves towards temporal reference norms, cultivate a positive error culture, and differentiate educational activity in the classroom. We volition talk over our results and consider implications for psychological aspects of didactics and learning.

Introduction

The question of how to deal with performance heterogeneity is non a new topic. In recent years, schools have had to bargain with a growing proportion of students with a migration background and, in plough, with greater differences in language skills inside classrooms (Jensen & Rasmussen, 2011; Maehler & Brinkman, 2016). Furthermore, students with special educational needs are more often included in general teaching, increasing the heterogeneity of learning prerequisites (Markic & Abels, 2014; Powell, 2006).

Teachers' attitudes play a major office in how this growing heterogeneity is dealt with in the classroom and have been the focus of the prevailing literature (due east.g., Dar, 1985; Hartinger et al., 2010; Kumar & Hamer, 2012; Linchevski & Kutscher, 1998; Youngs & Youngs, 2001). However, the grade composition (e.1000., performance heterogeneity, mean class performance level) does not just affect teachers but also affect students. Regarding students' school-related attitudes, studies evidence that positive attitudes increment learning motivation, joy, and operation (e.g., Else-Quest et al., 2013; Gaith & Bouzeineddine, 2011; Papanastasiou & Zembylas, 2002). Accordingly, students perform especially well if they have a positive attitude towards school, a item subject area, or teacher.

Therefore, attitudes of students play an important part in educational practice and policy. The aim of this study was to clarify the attitudes towards performance heterogeneity (APH) among students. Based on a sample of 784 5^thursday-grade students, we examined how students' APH tin can be described and how students' APH relate to individual and contextual factors.

Attitudes as psychological constructs

Attitudes tin can conceptually be defined as a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993; Krosnick & Lilliputian, 1995). According to the multi-dimensional theory, attitudes can be distinguished into iii classes: cognition, touch, and beliefs (Katz & Stotland, 1959; Rosenberg & Hovland, 1960). Combined, these three components represent the mental attitude construct. The cognitive category contains beliefs people have about the attitude object. The melancholia component consists of emotions people accept related to the attitude object. The behavioral category encompasses people's intentions or actions with respect to the attitude object.

Attitude towards performance heterogeneity

It is already known that teachers perceive increasing performance heterogeneity as a professional difficulty (eastward.g., Baumert et al., 1997; Cho & DeCastro-Ambrosetti, 2005; Dooly, 2005; Kumar & Hamer, 2012). Among students themselves, this question is still unanswered. An investigation of students' attitudes is of high relevance, because it is causeless that 25% of the variance of students' performance can be explained by attitudes towards the subject, towards self-conventionalities, and towards the school environment (Blossom, 1976). While the influence of students' attitudes towards the subject (e.chiliad., Martinez et al., 2008; Papanastasiou & Zembylas, 2002, 2004) and towards self-belief (e.g., Else-Quest et al., 2013; Gaith and Bouzeineddine 2011) has already been proven to positively influence students' performance, students' attitudes towards the schoolhouse environment, such every bit operation heterogeneity, have played a pocket-sized office in previous research.

Mental attitude object: performance heterogeneity

In attitude theory, anything that can exist discriminated can be evaluated and used as an attitude object (Bem, 1972), whereby attitude objects tin can be either physical or abstract (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). The mental attitude object performance heterogeneity can be defined as the distribution of population elements along a continuum of homogeneity to heterogeneity with respect to an power or performance-related variable (cf. Lieberson, 1969; Teachman, 1980). Accordingly, students in rather homogeneous classes have rather similar cognitive abilities or performance levels, and students in rather heterogeneous classes have divergent cognitive abilities or performance levels.

The touch of performance heterogeneity on students' APH

Performance heterogeneity plays an important role in educational research and do, considering teachers face the challenge of dealing with performance heterogeneity professionally. However, performance heterogeneity affects both teachers and students. Performance heterogeneity is a contextual circumstance in which students learn and interact with each other. Students in classes with dissimilar compositions have different experiences with performance heterogeneity; these experiences are expected to influence students' APH. Even if previous research has not focused on students' APH, the literature reports findings regarding teachers' APH and students' attitudes towards inclusion, which can be used as a theoretical foundation.

Studies investigating teachers' APH reveal that teachers show a more positive APH if they accept already had contact with heterogeneity. Accordingly, a study by Linchevski and Kutscher (1998) showed that teacher participation in a project regarding mixed-ability grouping had a positive influence on their attitude towards teaching mixed-ability classes. Their analyses also prove that teachers' attitudes became more than positive the longer they participated in the project. Additionally, a study past Hartinger et al. (2010) compared the APH of teachers in mixed-historic period (heterogeneous) and same-historic period (homogeneous) classes in chief school. Their results revealed that teachers from mixed-age classes were significantly less likely to pursue a homogenization goal and more likely to view heterogeneity every bit an enrichment. Another report showed that instruction in heterogeneous classes led teachers to have a more positive APH (measured by a teachers' preference to teach a heterogeneous class in future) (Dar, 1985). Furthermore, Byrnes and Kiger (1997) found similar results for attitudes towards language variety, proving that such attitudes tin can be predicted by a teacher'south previous experience. If teachers had already been in contact with linguistic-minority students, they had a more positive attitude towards language multifariousness.

Studies investigating students' attitudes towards inclusion of children with disability follow a similar blueprint. Hence, a meta-assay past Nowicki and Sandieson (2002) showed that, in general, students preferred their classmates to be children without disabilities (ES = 0.71), only students from integrative classes had more positive attitudes towards children with disabilities compared to their classmates in regular classes (ES = 0.32). Another meta-analysis, which was recently conducted past Armstrong et al. (2016), plant that direct and extended contact with students with disabilities (concrete disability, learning disability, specific diagnoses) led to more positive attitudes towards students with disabilities among students (ES_{direct contact} = 0.55; ES_{extended contact} = 0.61).

Some of these studies merits that their results tin be explained by the contact hypothesis co-ordinate to Allport (1954) (e.m., Armstrong et al., 2016; Byrnes & Kiger, 1997). The contact hypothesis states that frequent contact with groups or individuals towards which or whom prejudices have been formed reduces these prejudices and helps individuals develop a positive attitude. Contact is assumed to be particularly effective if people in the contact situation pursue cooperative goals, are of the same status, and interact with each other, and if contact is supported by the regime. As already stated, performance heterogeneity is a contextual circumstance that students are confronted with. According to the contact hypothesis, this could mean that students have a more positive APH if they are part of a heterogeneous grade. Because students in a course pursue common goals (e.g., passing the class, credence for colleges), collaborate with each other (e.g., discussions, group work, joint assignments), and are supported by their teacher, operation heterogeneity is assumed to positively influence students' APH.

The bear upon of instructor behavior on students' APH

In addition to functioning heterogeneity, a instructor'due south behavior of how to plant the learning environment might be significant for developing a positive APH in students. If a teacher cannot ensure that the disadvantages of heterogeneous classes (e.g., disturbances, understraining and overstraining students) are limited and that the advantages (e.thou., students of dissimilar cognitive abilities working together) are used for social and cognitive learning (Slavin, 1990), students have no opportunity to gain positive experiences with performance heterogeneity and therefore cannot develop a positive APH.

Professionally dealing with performance heterogeneity is quite complex and difficult to implement. Teachers see several challenges with performance heterogeneity and must implement strategies in order to professionally manage it (Pietsch, 2010). The state of research and the existing literature provide teachers with the following strategies: Firstly, teachers must establish a simple, well-structured learning surround through efficient classroom management (e.g., Emmer et al., 2006). Secondly, teachers must cultivate a learner-centered teacher-pupil relationship (east.k., Cornelius-White, 2007). And, thirdly, teachers demand to differentiate instruction in club to assure adequate learning support for students of different ability groups (due east.g., Hattie, 2009).

Classroom management

In order to positively change students' APH, stable classroom management by teachers is vital. Classroom direction is relevant for effective pedagogy and can be defined equally "the power to establish, maintain and (when necessary) restore the classroom equally an constructive environment for educational activity and learning (Brophy, 1986)." Literature suggests two strategies for effective classroom management: First, it is important to instruct students in rules (e.g., Emmer et al., 2006; McGinnis et al., 1995; Van de Grift, 2007), and 2nd, teachers need to monitor educatee compliance with the rules by effectively managing disruptions (east.g., Anderson et al., 1979; Brophy & Evertson, 1976; Evertson et al., 2006; Pedota, 2007).

Clarification of rules with detailed instructions and modeling prevents a high amount of disturbance and gives students clear guidance (Evertson & Emmer, 1982). This is essential for professionally managing heterogeneity and is assumed to positively influence students' APH. In improver, rapid intervention when students behave inappropriately is assumed to promote students' APH. Especially in heterogeneous classes, the way students understand compliance and working behavior might highly vary, and it is important that teachers remind students about rules and provide extra instruction until students follow rules automatically (Brophy, 1986). If teachers succeed in implementing both strategies—preventing and effectively managing disturbances—they create a fruitful basis for successful learning, which enables students to develop a positive APH.

Learner-centered approach

Furthermore, students' APH might be positively affected by teachers using a learner-centered teaching approach. The learner-centered approach connects a focus on private learners with a focus on learning (McCombs & Whisler, 1997). Information technology involves teacher and students interacting successfully—interaction that is characterized by sensitivity, respect, and quality of relationship (due east.m., Cornelius-White, 2007; Kunter & Voss, 2011; Pianta & Hamre, 2009). To ensure a learner-centered environment, two strategies are particularly appropriate: First, teachers orient themselves towards temporal reference norms (east.m., Dickhäuser et al., 2017; Rheinberg, 1980), and second, teachers foster a positive mistake culture in the classroom (e.g., Keith & Frese, 2008; Nordstrom et al., 1998; Rach et al., 2013).

A reference norm orientation (RNO) applies to the cess of students' performance and distinguishes betwixt three approaches: benchmark-based RNO (comparing individual performance with an accented standard), social RNO (comparing individual performance with the performance of other students), and temporal RNO (comparing private performance with past results) (Rheinberg, 1980). In order to positively influence students' APH, teachers should utilise temporal RNO. In heterogeneous classes, differences in performance are highly pronounced and, therefore, more than easily noticed by students. This can lead to a larger gap betwixt students and tensions in the course, negatively influencing students' APH. However, if teachers highlight individual learning development, they mistiness differences in power, shifting students' focus from social comparing to their own learning growth, and thus, students are more than likely to develop a positive APH. Another learner-centered arroyo which supports a positive APH among students is an fault-friendly feedback civilization. Considering in heterogeneous classes students' cognitive abilities vary substantially, comprehension problems, misconceptions, and wrong answers may occur more ofttimes. Especially, the latter trigger a feeling of unpleasantness in students and increases emotional discomfort (Kunter & Trautwein, 2013). To promote students' APH, it might be crucial that teachers integrate these errors in order to explicate thought processes and stimulate discussions (Tulis, 2013). In doing so, teachers derive a benefit from grade heterogeneity and provide students with the opportunity to develop a positive APH.

Differentiated instruction

A terminal aspect for fostering a positive APH amid students is differentiated teaching. Differentiated educational activity adapts to the individual ability level of each student, with didactics materials designed in a differentiated and stimulating way (due east.grand., Hattie, 2009; King-Sears, 2008; Vaughn et al., 2001).

Students are often understrained and overstrained in everyday schoolhouse life, leading to boredom and monotony, which are perceived as the strongest schoolhouse-related problems for students (east.g., Larson & Richards, 1991; Perkins & Colina, 1985). These factors play a role especially in heterogeneous classes, where students are more than ofttimes understrained and overstrained. By didactically focusing on the individual learner (due east.yard., enabling discussions and groupwork between students of different ability levels, differentiating individual work in difficulty levels), teachers deal professionally with heterogeneity and cognitively activate each individual student. In this way, each student benefits from the heterogeneity of the class, which is assumed to positively influence APH.

Hypotheses

To date, there has been no literature regarding students' APH. However, in Flower (1976)'s theory of school learning, it is causeless that students' attitudes towards the school surround influence their learning and performance. Therefore, the aim of our study was to examine students' APH and its relationship with contextual factors.

In the post-obit, we nowadays our hypothesis apropos performance heterogeneity:

1. ane.

   Performance heterogeneity in the classroom positively relates to students' APH.

Based on the contact hypothesis according to Allport (1954), nosotros assumed that contact with an attitude object would exist positively linked to the mental attitude itself. Studies on attitudes towards APH among teachers (e.g., Byrnes & Kiger, 1997; Dar, 1985) as well as studies on attitudes towards inclusion among students (due east.g., Armstrong et al., 2016; Avramidis & Norwich, 2002) suggest this pattern, and we therefore expected the aforementioned design for APH amidst students. Nosotros assumed that students from classes with higher heterogeneity would bear witness a more than positive APH.

In the following, the hypotheses regarding classroom direction are presented:

• 2a. Implementing rules positively relates to students' APH.

• 2b. Finer managing disturbances positively relates to students' APH.

Both strategies contribute to effective classroom management, which is an important foundation for students to develop a positive APH. If teachers prevent disturbances using rules (Hypothesis 2a) and respond to disturbances effectively (Hypothesis 2b), students should have a more positive APH.

In the following, the hypotheses related to the learner-centered approach are presented:

• 3a. A temporal RNO positively relates to students' APH.

• 3b. A positive error civilization positively relates to students' APH.

Both strategies contribute to a learner-centered environment. Teachers applying a temporal RNO (Hypothesis 3a) level out differences in performance between students and focus on private learning evolution. Teachers fostering a positive mistake civilisation (Hypothesis 3b) integrate errors into their instruction. Both strategies are expected to positively chronicle to APH among students.

In the post-obit, nosotros nowadays our hypothesis regarding differentiated instruction:

1. iv.

   Differentiated instruction positively relates to students' APH.

Differentiated instruction reduces monotonous education phases. Furthermore, orientation towards individual performance levels increases the cognitive activeness of students. We thus assumed that professionally managing operation heterogeneity past differentiating teaching is positively associated with students' APH.

Method

Sample and design

At the start of the schoolhouse year 2018/2019, a survey of students and their teachers was conducted. Each student took part in a language proficiency exam and afterward completed a questionnaire. In the student questionnaire, data on private demographics, students' APH, and contextual instruction variables (i.e., implementation of rules, disturbance management, temporal RNO, positive error culture) were collected. The sample consisted of N = 784 five^th-grade students (fifty% female; One thousand _age = ten.20; standard difference (SD) = 0.51) from 33 classes. Their teachers (65% female; on average between 35 and 45 years old) were interviewed on their private demographics and the extent to which they differentiate their instruction (N = 21 because of low response rate) ^{Footnote 1}. The data were collected in 12 secondary schools (eight Gymnasien, two Realschulen, two Gemeinschaftsschulen). The boilerplate class consisted of 25 students; 65% of the students had a migration background, which ways that at to the lowest degree one parent was born abroad (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2018).

Instruments

Mental attitude towards functioning heterogeneity

APH was measured multi-dimensionally using iii split up scales for the cognitive, affective, and behavioral components. To measure the attitude components, an agreement-rejection dimension was used with respect to the attitude object operation heterogeneity. The items are based on a half dozen-level Likert scale and have a bipolar structure. The two respective poles are provided with response categories and differ in their valence. The higher the agreement, the more than positive the mental attitude of students towards functioning heterogeneity. Students' APH was measured based on their attitude in the subject German. The cognitive attitude dimension was measured with a total of xiii items reflecting students' thoughts nigh performance heterogeneity (e.g., I think a form in which the students' performance in German differs is… [bad]–[good]). The affective component was measured using 15 items reflecting students' emotions towards functioning heterogeneity (e.g., In a form in which students' performance in High german differed, I would be… [stressed]–[relaxed]). The behavioral component was measured using five items to capture the intentional behavior of students (e.m., If I had the choice, I would prefer to be in a class in which students perform… [similarly to me]–[differently to me]).

Functioning

An adapted version of the Duisburg language proficiency test was used to collect performance data (Karst et al., 2021; Theunissen et al., 2005). This adapted version comprises 4 subscales: listening comprehension, grammer, sentence structure, and vocabulary. Listening comprehension (α = .73) was assessed using an audio recording which the students listened to in one case. Afterwards, students were allowed to read and respond 10 single-choice questions (each with four possible answers) within eight min. The students' grammar performance (α = .82) was measured by combining two dissimilar tests. In test A, students had to consummate a sentence with the grammatically right form using ane or several given words. Exam B consisted of x single-option questions (each with four possible answers) which required students to complete a judgement using the grammatically correct class. The sentence structure test (α = .75) consisted of 40 items in a binary 0-ane format. Students had to decide whether the sentence structure was correct or incorrect. In the vocabulary test (α = .86), the students had to observe a synonym for a given word. It was based on a single-option format with 4 possible answers for a full of 20 items.

The four subtests were weighted to allow a maximum of 20 points each. Together, they represented students' concluding language proficiency score. Thus, the maximum test score was eighty points. Raw data (dichotomously coded) formed the basis for scaling co-ordinate to the 2-PL IRT model. Scaling was performed with R (R Core Squad, 2019). No items had to be excluded due to poor item fits (WMNSQ >i.2 or <0.8).

Performance heterogeneity

Operation heterogeneity was calculated with the intra-class SD based on the last score of the Duisburg linguistic communication proficiency test.

Teacher behavior

Students assessed the extent that rules apply in class (n _items = 4; α = .80; ICC1 = 5.99%; ICC2 = .61; e.chiliad., With my instructor, everyone knows the rules that must be followed. 1 = non true at all, iv = absolutely true) and the teacher'due south effective management of disturbances (due north _items = 4; α = .71; ICC1 = 13.15%; ICC2 = .79; e.g., My teacher ends disturbances by students rapidly and without discussion. one = non true at all, iv = absolutely true) (Piwowar, 2013). Students too assessed teachers' use of temporal RNO (n _items = 4; α = .76; ICC1 = 0.94%; ICC2 = .20; e.g., If I make a special effort, my instructor usually praises me, fifty-fifty if other students are better than me. 1 = not truthful at all, iv = absolutely true) (Jerusalem et al., 2009) and fostering of a positive error civilization past the teacher (n _items = four; α = .78; ICC1 = 3.61%; ICC2 = .48; e.one thousand., If I make mistakes in class, my teacher discusses them with me in such a way that it really helps me. i = non true at all, 4 = absolutely true) (Piwowar, 2013). Differentiated educational activity was assessed past the teachers themselves. Teachers were asked to appraise the extent to which they differentiate teaching in form (n _items = 11; α = .91; e.g., When students piece of work individually, I vary the chore to meet the needs of students with varying abilities. 1 = do not agree at all, 4 = concord absolutely) (based on Baumert et al., 2008; Rheinberg, 1980).

Data assay

First of all, a confirmatory cistron assay (CFA) was performed to uncover basic relationships between the attitude items and to clarify the construction of students' APH. In this process, we controlled for class amalgamation. The respective items model the three components: cognitive, affective, and behavioral attitudes. Together, the three subcomponents correspond the latent construct APH among students (Dotzel & Karst, 2021). Secondly, descriptive analyses were conducted to place the value of students' APH and to analyze the relationship between the three attitude components. Finally, to uncover the relationships between students' APH and contextual factors (Hypotheses ane–four), nosotros calculated vii multi-level structural equation models. The loadings of the attitude variables and attitude components were fixed at level 1 and level 2.

Model 0, the baseline model, examined the relationship between individual demographics, which nosotros divers equally control variables—gender (0 = male; i = female), migration groundwork (0 = both parents built-in in Germany; 1 = at least one parent built-in abroad), and cultural capital (how many books practise you have at domicile? 1 = None or but very few; 5 = Over 200 books)—and students' APH. Model ane addressed Hypothesis 1: the supposition that performance heterogeneity in the classroom would positively correlate with student' APH. Here, individual performance and average class operation were used as additional control variables. Furthermore, we controlled for school blazon by including binary school-type variables every bit predictors for operation heterogeneity and average class performance (see Fig. 1). Models 2–6 examined the link between teachers' professional management of performance heterogeneity and students' APH. Models 2–6 extended model ane, adding one predictor each. Models 2–5 included the corresponding predictors on educatee level 1 and form level 2, and model 6 on class level two only.

Fig. 1

Multi-level structural equation model using Hypothesis 2a as an case. cog, cognitive component; aff, affective component; beh, behavioral component; APH, students' attitudes towards operation heterogeneity; Mig, students' migration background (0 = both parents built-in in Germany; 1 = at least ane parent born abroad); Gender (0 = male person; 1 = female); CultCap, cultural upper-case letter; PH, performance heterogeneity; PAvg, boilerplate performance; RS, Realschule; GMS, Gemeinschaftsschule

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Individual test functioning was centered at the grouping hateful considering it depended on the respective class (Enders & Tofighi, 2007). All other independent continuous variables were z-standardized. Nosotros used the R packet lavaan to run our models (Rosseel, 2012). In all models, we imputed for missing data using fiml.

Results

Based on the CFA, we excluded one item (c_10) considering of its poor fit (λ = .xix) ^{Footnote 2}. The CFA showed an acceptable model fit with a comparative fit index (CFI) = .928, Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) = .922, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = .047 (Browne & Cudeck, 1993; Byrne, 1994), and a relative chi-square index with χ ²/df = 2.593 (Kline, 1998; Ullman, 2001). The adding of the attitude components showed very good reliabilities with α _cog = .91, α _aff = .95, and α _beh = .90 (come across Table 1).

Table ane Psychometric properties and correlations for the cognitive, affective, and behavioral attitude components

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Descriptive analyses

The descriptive statistics revealed a positive value for students' attitudes towards performance heterogeneity (Table 1). With a theoretical mean of 3.5 (ane = negative attitude; 6 = positive attitude), the cognitive (Yard = 4.1) and affective (Thou = four.3) components were in the positive area of the scale. Hence, students showed rather positive beliefs and emotions towards performance heterogeneity. The behavioral component had a hateful value of M = iii.5, the exact hateful of the calibration. Furthermore, Fig. two shows the distribution function of the respective attitude component and reveals differences between the cognitive (SD = 1.one) and affective (SD = 1.1) components and the behavioral (SD = 1.half dozen) component. We institute positive correlations betwixt the attitude components (run into Table ane). Students who have positive behavior well-nigh operation heterogeneity are more likely to bear witness positive emotions nearly functioning heterogeneity (r _{cog_aff} = .64; p < .001) and are more likely to choose a heterogeneous class (r _{cog_beh} = .22; p < .001; r _{aff_beh} = .27; p < .001).

Fig. 2

Density plot for the attitude components

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Relationship between contextual factors and students' APH

Table 2 shows the relationships between contextual factors and students' APH. Model 0, the baseline model, adamant the link betwixt the control variables (i.e., students' individual demographics) and APH. Models 0–6 revealed that none of the students' private background characteristics relates to APH (except students' migration background in model 0 (β = .xi; p < .05) and model 6 (β = .22; p < .05)).

Table two Multi-level structural equation models predicting students' attitudes towards performance heterogeneity

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Performance heterogeneity

Hypothesis 1 examined whether a classes' performance heterogeneity is linked to students' APH (see model 1, Tabular array 2). The results revealed that performance heterogeneity in a class positively correlates with students' APH (β = .09; p < .05). This correlation remains stable when controlling for individual operation (β = −.00; p = .607) and average form performance (β = .01; p = .877), both of which do non significantly relate to APH.

Teacher beliefs

Hypotheses 2a and 2b examined how effective classroom management is associated with students' APH. Model 2 showed that if teachers implement rules in the classroom, students evidence a higher APH (β = .17; p < .001). Model 3 revealed that students' APH is college, if teachers apply an effective approach to manage disturbances (β = .10; p < .01). Hypotheses 3a and 3b investigated the relationship between a leaner-centered teaching arroyo and students' APH. Model four showed that a temporal RNO goes along with higher students' APH (β = .13; p < .001). Model 5 revealed that students testify a more positive APH if their teacher fosters a positive error culture (β = .07; p < .05). Alongside the positive correlation on level 1, the results revealed additional compositional relationships. Thus, beyond students' individual perception, a classes' shared perception of their teacher implementing rules (β = .22; p < .10), managing disruptions (β = .17; p < .10), adopting a temporal RNO (β = .20; p < .05), and implementing a positive error civilisation (β = .25; p < .05) positively correlates with students' APH. Model half dozen focused on the professional person direction of performance heterogeneity through differentiated instruction, which was constitute to accept a positive link to students' APH. Hence, if teachers differentiate their instruction more, students show a more positive APH (β = .12; p < .05).

In model 6, functioning heterogeneity no longer showed a positive correlation with students' APH (β = .05; p = .486). To examine this diminishing relationship, we conducted a post hoc mediation analysis (come across Fig. 3). In this assay, we causeless that functioning heterogeneity would positively relate to the extent to which a teacher differentiated didactics, which, in plough, relates to students' APH. The results confirmed that a higher performance heterogeneity in a class comes forth with a college extent of differentiated instruction (β = .66; p < .01) and that differentiated instruction comes along with a higher students' APH (β = .12; p < .05). Still, PH showed no meaning correlation with APH (β = .05; p = .468).

Fig. iii

Paths and results for the mail service hoc mediation assay (simplified effigy). cog, cognitive component; aff, affective component; beh, behavioral component; APH, students' attitudes towards performance heterogeneity; Mig, students' migration background (0 = both parents built-in in Germany; ane = at to the lowest degree one parent born abroad); Gender (0 = male person; 1 = female); CultCap, cultural capital; PH, performance heterogeneity; PAvg, boilerplate performance

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Give-and-take

Our analyses reveal four important findings. First, students take a rather positive APH. Second, compared to contextual factors, private variables play a minor office when analyzing students' APH. Tertiary, a heterogeneous grade composition positively correlates with APH among students. Quaternary, students' APH is higher in classes in which teachers employ a professional approach of managing operation heterogeneity.

Our findings show that students have a rather positive APH. Accordingly, students exhibit positive beliefs, positive emotions, and an average behavioral intention regarding operation heterogeneity. The three components correlate positively and highly significantly. Thus, students with more positive behavior about performance heterogeneity too show more than positive emotions and are more positive well-nigh choosing a heterogeneous grade. This confirms the basic assumption of the consistency theorem in multi-dimensional attitude theory (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993) that the different components are by and large consequent.

However, the behavioral component differs slightly from the cerebral and affective components with regard to its mean and distribution. The descriptive characteristics evidence that the response pattern changes when students assess their intentional behavior regarding a heterogeneous class. The distribution function shows that students do non clearly prefer a moderately heterogeneous course—there rather is a like number of students who would cull a homogeneous, heterogeneous, or moderately heterogeneous form. The deviation betwixt the behavioral component and the cognitive and melancholia components is also revealed by the corresponding correlations. Although positive correlations were found between the attitude components, the cognitive and melancholia components were much more strongly related than the behavioral component. Mental attitude research has extensively discussed the fact that the behavioral component deviates from the cognitive and affective components (eastward.chiliad., Eagly & Chaiken, 1993; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975; Rosenberg, 1960). The construal level theory assumes that psychological distances and mental abstractions influence each other. Individuals think more than abstractly about afar objects and more concretely almost close objects (Liberman & Trope, 2008). Believing that a heterogeneous class is good or bad and feeling that a heterogeneous class is good or bad is a distant, abstruse construct. Equally soon as students are asked to determine on a certain grade composition, the attitude object performance heterogeneity is evaluated based on their current private state. Every bit a result, students accept higher attitude values for the cognitive and affective components, and some students would choose a homogeneous grade despite their positive cognitive and affective attitude.

Some other central finding of our analyses is the relationship between operation heterogeneity itself and students' APH. In accordance with the contact hypothesis, beingness part of a heterogeneous class positively correlates with students' APH (Allport, 1954). Heterogeneity is a critically discussed topic in the media and everyday school life. Students from heterogeneous classes might be able to counterbalance up the advantages of heterogeneity and be less affected past negative stereotypes. Our results reveal i exception: Performance heterogeneity does non show a significant correlation if the extent of differentiated instruction is taken into account. A postal service hoc arbitration analysis provided the deeper insight that operation heterogeneity is positively linked to the extent of differentiated educational activity, which again positively relates to students' APH.

An additional central finding of our analysis is the human relationship between teachers' behavior and students' APH. Specially, students in heterogeneous classes strongly differ in performance. Disturbances might ascend more than oft, because students feel bored or overstrained. Furthermore, wrong answers might occur more oft, comprehension questions might be asked more often, and the fourth dimension to end an assignment might vary considerably. Each of these factors can negatively relate to APH among students, because students have difficulties dealing with such characteristics of heterogeneity. Therefore, it is important that teachers themselves implement strategies to professionally deal with heterogeneity. In doing and so, they stress the advantages derived from a heterogeneous context and strengthen the positive relationship with students' APH.

In that respect, our results prove that professional management of performance heterogeneity by teachers—classroom management, a learner-centered education arroyo, and differentiated instruction—positively relates to students' APH. Our results reveal that students' APH is higher in classes, in which teachers effectively manage their classrooms past implementing rules and dealing with disturbances. In this way, teachers have more capacity for performing instruction, supporting individual learning, mobilizing groups, and facilitating social negotiation processes (Doyle, 2006; Evertson et al., 2006). Equally already stated in the theoretical section, disturbances might negatively affect students' APH. However, if teachers keep this disadvantage to a minimum (e.g., past dealing with disturbances using eye contact or past involving the corresponding students), students might not be irritated past heterogeneity and be more likely to take a positive APH. In addition, our results testify that a learner-centered teaching approach integrating a temporal RNO and a positive error civilization is positively linked to students' APH. Performance-related differences between students can increase the separation betwixt high- and low-performing students and tense the classroom atmosphere, coming along with a negative APH among students. If teachers give operation-related feedback using temporal RNO, they focus on the development of students' individual operation instead of inter-individual comparisons. Thus, this feedback approach is assumed to positively chronicle to students' APH. Notwithstanding, the results regarding RNO must be interpreted carefully: the ICC1 and ICC2 are very low, hinting that students within a course practice not resemble ane another regarding their perception of a instructor's RNO. The event of RNO on class level 2 on students' APH might exist estimated inaccurately, and a careful interpretation is needed. Besides RNO, teachers can actively comprise incorrect answers into instruction using a positive fault culture to support students' APH. Past fostering a positive mistake culture, teachers convey their appreciation of misunderstandings and misconceptions to students, enabling students to feel comfortable in a heterogeneous class. Furthermore, differentiated education was institute to positively relate to students' APH. When applying differentiated instruction, teachers proceed in mind the complexity and diversity of educational activity-learning environments. This is especially important in heterogeneous classes, in which student operation highly differs. Some studies show that differentiated teaching has advantages for social learning compared to traditional teaching (e.yard., Lüders & Rauin, 2004; Trautmann & Wischer, 2011). Especially, cooperative approaches such every bit peer-assisted learning strategies or reciprocal didactics involving tutors and tutees of dissimilar ability levels (Chatoupis & Vagenas, 2018; Fuchs et al., 1997; Hattie, 2009; Palincsar & Brownish, 1984; Pilten, 2016) stimulate classroom settings and atomic number 82 students to perceive operation-related heterogeneity in the classroom positively.

Too baseline model 0, model 6 reveals a meaning positive relationship with students' migration groundwork on APH. This result must exist interpreted carefully. The sample's composition regarding migration groundwork in this study might differ to that of other studies, considering students' countries of origin are very diverse in our study. Researchers accept already shown that when analyzing students' migration groundwork, differential effects must exist considered, since the effects of subgroups from different countries of origin differ (e.yard., Müller & Stanat, 2006; Segeritz et al., 2010). In our report, origin-related correlations could non be identified considering of the small sample size, and before putting forward culling explanations, this link should be replicated in future studies.

Limitations

When interpreting our results, the following limitations have to be considered. First and most important, our study does not allow the interpretation of causal relationships, fifty-fifty if a direction of effects derives from theory. According to the theoretical section, nosotros can presume that performance heterogeneity and a teachers' effective approach to deal with it increase students' APH. Furthermore, the opposite case, that APH influences teacher action, is difficult to explain in theory. However, at that place is no empirical bear witness from our study, since data were collected at a common measurement point. Additionally, our data were collected in the kickoff quarter of the school yr; thus, students had been in the same course for but about 2 months. Notwithstanding, the variance of the mental attitude scale and the systematic correlations indicate that students had already gained an impression of the performance heterogeneity in their classroom. Secondly, our data only cover five^thursday-grade students. Although a preliminary study with guided interviews (Dotzel & Karst, 2021) has shown that even young students can grasp the performance heterogeneity construct, it remains questionable if older students show the aforementioned patterns. Furthermore, nosotros must consider the specificity of our sample, in which 65% of the students had a migration background and transferability to regions with fewer students with migration backgrounds in schools (e.g., rural schools) can exist seen critically. Another limitation was the focus on the subject field German language. Although studies show that language proficiency is a good predictor for school success and performance in other subjects (Watson et al., 2003), we cannot assume that students' APH would be similar for mathematics or a foreign linguistic communication. Future analyses are needed to reveal whether the results are comparable for these subjects. Some other important limitation is the lack of the variable teachers' APH. Studies have already shown that teachers of heterogeneous classes bear witness more positive attitudes (e.g., Dar, 1985; Hartinger et al., 2010; Linchevski & Kutscher, 1998). A teachers' APH can reinforce the human relationship between performance heterogeneity and students' APH, since the instructor plays an of import part in dealing with this heterogeneity. In addition, variables on classroom management and learner-centered arroyo were nerveless via student judgments. Appropriately, we take to accost the critical question of the validity of student assessment. According to Clausen (2002), even so, pupil judgment is considered particularly valid when the areas of teacher action require little didactic-pedagogical noesis. For assessing the variables we used in our written report, pedagogical-didactic knowledge is especially required for differentiated instruction, which we assessed by teacher judgments. Furthermore, near of the educatee-judged variables (implementing rules, managing disturbances and positive error culture) were assessed by scales developed by Piwowar (2013). The author used several tests to validate the scales for classroom management and learner-centered arroyo, and analyses revealed that the pupil assessment gave a valid picture of the variables (Piwowar, 2013). Therefore, nosotros can be reasonably sure of a valid measurement of these variables on the class level. A valid assessment of the temporal RNO on the class level must notwithstanding exist viewed from a disquisitional perspective, equally was also outlined in the "Discussion" section. Finally, the relatively small number of classes should exist considered when interpreting our results. The effects of functioning heterogeneity and differentiated instruction are afflicted by grade size. In comparison to models 2–five, at that place are no student level ane data bachelor (accordingly, averaging outliers is not possible). Hence, follow-up analyses with a larger sample at course level are necessary to replicate our findings.

Practical implications and conclusions

Our study shows that APH tends to exist positive amidst students. Regarding this, it is of high relevance that individual background characteristics are not as important for students' APH as their teacher's behavior. This is an reward for learning and instruction, because individual characteristics cannot exist influenced by teachers and therefore cannot be used to modify students' APH. Furthermore, information technology is of great importance that students' APH positively relates to a teachers implementation of classroom management, of learner-centered educational activity, and of differentiated instruction. Numerous studies have already proven that the awarding of these methods in the classroom enhances students' learning (e.1000., Kunter & Voss, 2011; Pianta & Hamre, 2009; Rakoczy et al., 2007). Furthermore, students' learning improves with positive schoolhouse-related attitudes among students (eastward.one thousand., Else-Quest et al., 2013; Gaith & Bouzeineddine, 2011; Papanastasiou & Zembylas, 2002). Nether the assumption that teachers actually influence students' APH—as assumed in theory—teachers can have a dual issue on students' learning: get-go, via the direct effect of creating a articulate, positive, and differentiated learning environment, and second, via the indirect result of these factors, through which teachers support learning past positively changing students' APH.

Notes

1. Results of a t exam revealed that there were no significant differences in operation heterogeneity (p = .23) between the classes for which the teachers responded (Thousand = 9.88) and those for which the teachers did not respond (1000 = 10.89).

2. Nosotros provide a tabular array with the gene loadings of the confirmatory cistron assay in the supplementary textile online. Please see SM01_Standardized Factor Loadings.

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Funding

Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL. This enquiry was supported by grants from the Ministry building of Science, Research, and the Arts in Baden-Württemberg, funding line "Leuchttürme Lehrerbildung".

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Affiliations

1. Section of Psychology, University of Bamberg, Markusplatz three, 96047, Bamberg, Germany

   Stefanie Dotzel

2. Department of Psychology, University of Mannheim, A5, 6, 68159, Mannheim, Germany

   Meike Bonefeld & Karina Karst

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Correspondence to Stefanie Dotzel.

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Stefanie Dotzel. Section of Psychology, University of Bamberg, Markusplatz 3, 96047 Bamberg, Germany. Electronic mail: stefanie.dotzel@uni-bamberg.de

Current themes of research:

Simple and lower secondary education. Attitudes. Performance heterogeneity. Linguistic diverseness. Indigenous/racial diversity. Teachers' assessment competence.

Most relevant publications in the field of Psychology of Education:

Karst, K., Dotzel, S., & Dickhäuser, O. (2018). Comparing global judgments and specific judgments of teachers about students' knowledge. Is the whole the sum of its parts? Education and Teacher Education (76), 194–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2018.01.013

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Dotzel, S., Bonefeld, G. & Karst, K. Students' attitudes towards operation heterogeneity and their relation to contextual factors. Eur J Psychol Educ 37, 101–121 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-021-00544-two

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• Received: 07 April 2020

• Revised: 03 February 2021

• Accepted: 02 March 2021

• Published: 16 Apr 2021

• Issue Appointment: March 2022

• DOI : https://doi.org/x.1007/s10212-021-00544-2

Keywords

• Performance heterogeneity
• Attitudes towards operation heterogeneity
• Secondary school students
• Contextual relationships

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